Nature versus Nurture

Sex, Gender and Sexuality

In the construction of human identity, the significance of social learning versus biological determinism is frequently debated. The debate focuses on the idea of sex differences being attributable to one or the other influence. The idea of sex differences as being 'natural' in origin, biological or more specifically genetic is opposed to that of 'nurture' which leads to culturally constructed gender differences.

'Sex' implies the different biological functions of male and female in the process of reproduction. As such there is some commonality with the reproductive behaviour of other mammals. Gender can be seen as the social differences between the two sexes. It can immediately be seen that 'gender' is not normally applied to other animals.

The notion of sex differences can be used to divide male and female in terms of stereotypical qualities. This relates to patriarchy and it remains strong even though patriarchy may be of less importance then formerly in western society. Such stereotypes are organised along the lines of binary oppositions with the male being characterised by the quality which is considered to be positive and the female by the negative. Such ideas include the opposite pairs such as active v. passive; strong v. weak, wise v. foolish, dominant v. subordinate. Leading on from this it seems 'natural' that males should be seen stereotypically as violent, females as non violent, males as leaders and females as 'followers'.

Freud believed biology to be destiny. His theory considered the presence or absence of a penis to signify the possible stages of the child's maturity into adult psychosexual development. His society was very strongly patriarchal and he seemed to fail to notice that the presence of a penis signalled the boy's future place as a dominant member of society, compared with that of the girl who was totally subordinate to men. Considering sex to equal biology Freud postulates the ideas of sex drive, which leads to libido, which in turn leads to repression (of libidinal energy). It was not acceptable for girls and women to express sexual drives therefore repression of libido was necessary.

Freud thought that this biological state underpinned the social one constructed upon it; gender grows out of sex.

Later theorists have examined the development of children in terms of the presence or absence of male hormones. These theories have been somewhat tautological as they assessed the children in terms of pre-existing gender stereotypes such as 'interest in weddings' or in 'rough and tumble' play. (2)

The purpose of sex differences can be seen directly to meet the needs of procreation; gender, in contrast, signals possible roles in society. Gender is constructed differently between societies and in the same society over time. As such it must serve wider purposes than simply procreation; however it is not possible to argue that all differences stem from social learning. Children under two years old can identify the sex of another child simply by watching his/her movements. They do not have to be dressed in pink or blue. This might mean that there is a biological significance underlying gender stereotypes.

Feminist thinkers are against the idea of biological determinism and see gender as a cultural construction. Sexual stereotyping is seen as a direct result of patriarchy. Patriarchy depends upon men being strong physically and mentally in order to take power, whilst women need to be weak and foolish to remain subordinate.